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''ဒြဝျ'' ဂှ် ဒှ်အရေဝ်သံသကြိုတ် မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် ဒြပ်။{{sfn|Grimes|1996|pp=118–119}} နကဵုလညာတ်ဒဿန ဇိန်မ္ဂး စက္ကဝါဝွံ ဒက်ပ္တန်လဝ် နကဵု ဒြပ်တြဴပြကာ မတွဟ်ဂး ဇဳဝ (ဇဴ)၊ ပုဒဂလ၊ ဓမ္မ၊ အဓမ္မ၊ အကာသ ကေုာံ ကာလ။{{sfn|Nemicandra|Balbir|2010|p=1 of Introduction}}{{sfn|Grimes|1996|pp=118–119}} လက္ကရဴ မသုန်ဂှ် ဒှ်သက်ကုလမျီု (အဇဳဝ)။{{sfn|Grimes|1996|pp=118–119}} ဒဿနဇိန်ဂှ် ပါ်လဝ် ဒြပ် နူကဵု ခန္ဓ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အရပ်အရာ နကဵုဗီုပြင် အရာပလီုပလာ်ဂွံ ကဵု အရာမပလီုပလာ်ဟွံဂွံတအ်ရ။{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1917|p=15}}
===''Tattva'' (Reality)===
{{Main|Tattva (Jainism)}}
''Tattva'' connotes reality or truth in Jain philosophy, and is the framework for salvation. According to Digambara Jains, there are seven ''tattvas'': the sentient (''jiva''); the insentient (''ajiva''); the karmic influx to the soul (''[[Asrava|Āsrava]]''); bondage of karmic particles to the soul (''[[Bandha (Jainism)|Bandha]]'');{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=188–190}}{{sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=219–228}} stoppage of karmic particles (''[[Saṃvara]]''); wiping away of past karmic particles (''[[Nirjara|Nirjarā]]''); and liberation (''[[Moksha]]''). Śvētāmbaras add two further ''tattvas'', namely good karma (''Punya'') and bad karma (''Paap'').{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=177–187}}{{sfn|Jaini|1998|p=151}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=96–98}} The true insight in Jain philosophy is considered as "faith in the ''tattvas''".{{sfn|Jaini|1998|p=151}} The spiritual goal in Jainism is to reach ''moksha'' for ascetics, but for most Jain laypersons it is to accumulate good karma that leads to better rebirth and a step closer to liberation.{{sfn|Bailey|2012|p=108}}{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=18, 98–100}}
===Soul and karma===
{{Main|Karma in Jainism}}
[[File:Jiva.jpg|thumb|Classification of ''Saṃsāri Jīvas'' (transmigrating souls) in Jainism]]
According to Jainism, the existence of "a bound and ever changing soul" is a self-evident truth, an axiom which does not need to be proven.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|p=103}} It maintains that there are numerous souls, but every one of them has three qualities (''[[Guṇa]]''): consciousness (''caitanya'', the most important), bliss (''sukha'') and vibrational energy (''virya'').{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=104–106}} It further claims that the vibration draws karmic particles to the soul and creates bondages, but is also what adds merit or demerit to the soul.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=104–106}} Jain texts state that souls exist as "clothed with material bodies", where it entirely fills up the body.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=194}} Karma, as in other Indian religions, connotes in Jainism the universal cause and effect law. However, it is envisioned as a material substance (subtle matter) that can bind to the soul, travel with the soul in bound form between rebirths, and affect the suffering and happiness experienced by the ''jiva'' in the ''lokas''.{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=92–95}} Karma is believed to obscure and obstruct the innate nature and striving of the soul, as well as its spiritual potential in the next rebirth.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=99–103}}
===Saṃsāra===
{{main|Saṃsāra (Jainism)|Vitalism (Jainism)}}
The conceptual framework of the Saṃsāra doctrine differs between Jainism and other Indian religions. Soul (''jiva'') is accepted as a truth, as in Hinduism but not Buddhism. The cycle of rebirths has a definite beginning and end in Jainism.{{Sfn|Jaini|1980|p=226}} Jain theosophy asserts that each soul passes through 8,400,000 birth-situations as they circle through ''Saṃsāra'',{{Sfn|Jaini|1980|p=228}}{{sfn|Jaini|2000|pp=130–131}} going through five types of bodies: earth bodies, water bodies, fire bodies, air bodies and vegetable lives, constantly changing with all human and non-human activities from rainfall to breathing.{{Sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=223–225}} Harming any life form is a sin in Jainism, with negative karmic effects.{{Sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=224–225}}{{sfn|Sethia|2004|pp=30–31}} Jainism states that souls begin in a primordial state, and either evolve to a higher state or regress if driven by their karma.{{Sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=227–228}} It further clarifies that ''abhavya'' (incapable) souls can never attain ''[[moksha]]'' (liberation).{{Sfn|Jaini|1980|p=226}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=104–105}} It explains that the ''abhavya'' state is entered after an intentional and shockingly evil act.{{Sfn|Jaini|1980|p=225}} Souls can be good or evil in Jainism, unlike the [[nondualism]] of some forms of Hinduism and Buddhism.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=104–105}} According to Jainism, a ''Siddha'' (liberated soul) has gone beyond ''Saṃsāra'', is at the apex, is omniscient, and remains there eternally.{{Sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=222–223}}
===Cosmology===
{{Main|Jain cosmology}}
{{Multiple image
| image1 = Jain universe.JPG
| caption1 = Rebirth ''loka'' (realms of existence) in Jain cosmology.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=90–92}}
| width1 = 165
| image2 = Jain Cosmic Time Cycle.jpg
| caption2 = Division of time in Jain cosmology.
| width2 = 159
}}
Jain texts propound that the universe consists of many eternal ''lokas'' (realms of existence). As in Buddhism and Hinduism, both time and the universe are eternal, but the universe is transient.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=241}}{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=83–85}} The universe, body, matter and time are considered separate from the soul (''jiva''). Their interaction explains life, living, death and rebirth in Jain philosophy.{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=83–85}} The Jain cosmic universe has three parts, the upper, middle, and lower worlds (''urdhva loka'', ''madhya loka'', and ''adho loka'').{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|1998|p=25}} Jainism states that ''Kāla'' (time) is without beginning and eternal;{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=551}} the cosmic wheel of time, ''kālachakra'', rotates ceaselessly. In this part of the universe, it explains, there are six periods of time within two eons (''ara''), and in the first eon the universe generates, and in the next it degenerates.{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2011|p=46}} Thus, it divides the worldly cycle of time into two half-cycles, ''utsarpiṇī'' (ascending, progressive prosperity and happiness) and ''[[avasarpiṇī]]'' (descending, increasing sorrow and immorality).{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=551}}{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2016|p=313}}{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=271–272}} It states that the world is currently in the fifth ''ara'' of ''avasarpiṇī'', full of sorrow and religious decline, where the height of living beings shrinks. According to Jainism, after the sixth ''ara'', the universe will be reawakened in a new cycle.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=13}}{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1929b|p=124}}{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|p=27}}
===God===
[[File:Jain 24-Tirthankaras.jpg|thumb|upright|Jain miniature painting of 24 tirthankaras, [[Jaipur]], {{circa|1850}}]]
{{Main|God in Jainism}}
Jainism is a [[transtheistic]] religion,{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=182}} holding that the [[Jainism and non-creationism|universe was not created]], and will exist forever.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=241}} It is believed to be independent, having no creator, governor, judge, or destroyer.{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=83–85}}{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=241–242}} In this, it is unlike the Abrahamic religions, but similar to Buddhism.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=241–243}} However, Jainism believes in the world of gods and hell beings who are born, die and reborn like earthly beings.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=247–249, 262–263}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=20–21, 34–35, 74, 91, 95–96, 103}} Jain texts maintain that souls who live happily in the body of a god do so because of their positive karma.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=262–263}} It is further stated that they possess a more transcendent knowledge about material things and can anticipate events in the human realms.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=262–263}} However, once their past karmic merit is exhausted, it is explained that their souls are reborn again as humans, animals or other beings.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=262–263}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=91, 95–96}} In Jainism, perfect souls ''with'' a body are called ''[[Arihant (Jainism)|arihant]]'' (victors) and perfect souls ''without'' a body are called ''[[Siddha]]s'' (liberated souls).{{Sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=222–223}}{{sfn|Rankin|Mardia|2013|p=40}}{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=182}}
===Epistemology===
{{Main|Jain epistemology}}
Jain philosophy accepts three reliable means of knowledge (''[[pramana]]''). It holds that correct knowledge is based on perception (''pratyaksa''), inference (''anumana'') and testimony (''sabda'' or the word of scriptures).{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=238}}{{sfn|Soni|2000|pp=367–377}} These ideas are elaborated in Jain texts such as ''Tattvarthasūtra'', ''Parvacanasara'', ''Nandi'' and ''Anuyogadvarini''.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=75–76, 131, 229–230}}{{sfn|Soni|2000|pp=367–377}} Some Jain texts add analogy (''upamana'') as the fourth reliable means, in a manner similar to [[pramana|epistemological theories]] found in other Indian religions.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=229–230}} In Jainism, ''jnāna'' (knowledge) is said to be of five kinds – ''[[Kevala Jnana]]'' (Omniscience), ''Śrutu Jñāna'' (Scriptural Knowledge), ''Mati Jñāna'' (Sensory Knowledge), ''Avadhi Jñāna'' (Clairvoyance), and ''Manah prayāya Jñāna'' (Telepathy).{{sfn|S.A. Jain|1992|p=16}} According to the Jain text ''Tattvartha sūtra'', the first two are indirect knowledge and the remaining three are direct knowledge.{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2011|p=6}}
===Salvation, liberation===
{{Main|Moksha (Jainism)|Ratnatraya|Gunasthana}}
[[File:MahaveeJi.jpg|thumb|The three [[Shikhara|shikhar]] (top) of a [[Jain temple]] represents ''Ratnatraya'' (three jewels)]]
According to Jainism, purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the path of three jewels:{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2011|p=6}}{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=6–7}}{{sfn|Fohr|2015|pp=9–10, 37}} ''Samyak darśana'' (Correct View), meaning faith, acceptance of the truth of soul (''jīva'');{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=141–147}} ''Samyak gyana'' (Correct Knowledge), meaning undoubting knowledge of the ''tattvas'';{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=148, 200}} and ''Samyak charitra'' (Correct Conduct), meaning behavior consistent with the Five vows.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=148, 200}} Jain texts often add ''samyak tap'' (Correct Asceticism) as a fourth jewel, emphasizing belief in ascetic practices as the means to liberation ([[moksha]]).{{sfn|Cort|2001a|p=7}} The four jewels are called ''moksha marg'' (the path of liberation).{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=6–7}}
== Main principles ဓဝ်အဓိက ==
=== Non-violence (''ahimsa'') အဟိံသ ===
[[ဝှာင်:Ahinsa_Parmo_Dharm_1.jpg|thumb|Relief representing ''ahimsa'' ]]
=== Many-sided reality (''anekāntavāda'') အနေကာန္တဝါဒ ===
[[ဝှာင်:Medieval_Jain_temple_Anekantavada_doctrine_artwork.jpg|thumb|Jain temple painting explaining Anekantavada with Blind men and an elephant]]
[[ဝှာင်:Nishidhi_stone_with_14th_century_Old_Kannada_inscription_from_Tavanandi_forest.JPG|thumb|Nishidhi stone, depicting the vow of ''sallekhana'', 14th century, Karnataka]]
#
== Practices ဒ္ဂေတ် ==
=== Food and fasting ===
=== Meditation ===
=== Rituals and worship ===
[[ဝှာင်:Shravanbelgola_Gomateshvara_feet_prayer1.jpg|thumb|Praying at the feet of a statue of Bahubali]]
[[ဝှာင်:A_Jain_ritual_offerings_and_puja_recital_at_a_temple,_worship_in_Jainism.jpg|left|thumb|Jain worship may include ritual offerings and recitals.{{Sfn|Wiley|2009}}]]
=== Festivals ===
[[ဝှာင်:Das_Lakshana_(Paryusana)_celebrations,_New_York_City_Jain_temple_2.JPG|thumb|Celebrating Das Lakshana (Paryusana), Jain Center of America, New York City]]
{{Quote box|'''Forgiveness'''
<poem>
I forgive all living beings,
may all living beings forgive me.
All in this world are my friends,
I have no enemies.
</poem>}}
== Traditions and sects ==
Excavations at Mathura revealed Jain statues from the time of the Kushan Empire (c.{{Spaces}}1st century CE).{{Sfn|Jaini|2000}} ''Tirthankara'' represented without clothes, and monks with cloth wrapped around the left arm, are identified as the ''Ardhaphalaka'' (half-clothed) mentioned in texts.{{Sfn|Jaini|2000}} The Yapaniyas, believed to have originated from the ''Ardhaphalaka'', followed Digambara nudity along with several Śvētāmbara beliefs.{{Sfn|Jaini|2000}} In the modern era, according to Flügel, new Jain religious movements that are a "primarily devotional form of Jainism" have developed which resemble "Jain Mahayana" style devotionalism.{{Sfn|Flügel|2005}}
== Scriptures and texts ==
Jain canonical scriptures are called ''Agamas''. They are believed to have been verbally transmitted, much like the ancient Buddhist and Hindu texts,{{Sfn|Dundas|2002}} and to have originated from the sermons of the ''tirthankaras'', whereupon the ''Ganadharas'' (chief disciples) transmitted them as ''Śhrut Jnāna'' (heard knowledge).{{Sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1929b}}{{Sfn|von Glasenapp|1925}} The spoken scriptural language is believed to be ''Ardhamagadhi'' by the Śvētāmbara Jains, and a form of sonic resonance by the Digambara Jains.{{Sfn|Dundas|2002}}
The Śvētāmbaras believe that they have preserved 45 of the 50 original Jain scriptures (having lost an Anga text and four Purva texts), while the Digambaras believe that all were lost,{{Sfn|Dundas|2002}}{{Sfn|von Glasenapp|1925}} and that Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic who had partial knowledge of the original canon. According to them, Digambara ''Āchāryas'' recreated the oldest-known Digambara Jain texts, including the four ''anuyoga''.{{Sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2016}}{{Sfn|Jaini|1998}}{{Sfn|von Glasenapp|1925}} The Digambara texts partially agree with older Śvētāmbara texts, but there are also gross differences between the texts of the two major Jain traditions.{{Sfn|von Glasenapp|1925}} The Digambaras created a secondary canon between 600 and 900 CE, compiling it into four groups or ''Vedas'': history, cosmography, philosophy and ethics.{{Sfn|von Glasenapp|1925}}{{Efn|Not to be confused with the four ''[[Veda]]s'' of Hinduism.{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|pp=164–165}}}}
The most popular and influential texts of Jainism have been its non-canonical literature. Of these, the ''Kalpa Sūtras'' are particularly popular among Śvētāmbaras, which they attribute to Bhadrabahu (c. 300 BCE). This ancient scholar is revered in the Digambara tradition, and they believe he led their migration into the ancient south Karnataka region and created their tradition.{{Sfn|von Glasenapp|1925}} Śvētāmbaras believe instead that Bhadrabahu moved to Nepal.{{Sfn|von Glasenapp|1925}} Both traditions consider his ''Niryuktis'' and ''Samhitas'' important. The earliest surviving Sanskrit text by Umaswati, the ''Tattvarthasūtra'' is considered authoritative by all traditions of Jainism.{{Sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007}}{{Efn|That Which Is, known as the ''Tattvartha Sūtra'' to Jains, is recognized by all four Jain traditions as the earliest, most authoritative and comprehensive summary of their religion."{{sfn|Umāsvāti|1994|p=xi–xiii}}}}{{Sfn|Dundas|2006}} In the Digambara tradition, the texts written by Kundakunda are highly revered and have been historically influential.{{Sfn|Finegan|1989}}{{Sfn|Balcerowicz|2003}}{{Sfn|Chatterjee|2000}} Other important Jain texts include: ''Samayasara'', ''Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra'', and ''Niyamasara''.{{Sfn|Jaini|1991}}
== Comparison with Buddhism and Hinduism ==
All three religions share concepts and doctrines such as karma and rebirth, with similar festivals and monastic traditions.{{Sfn|Solomon|Higgins|1998}}{{Sfn|Appleton|2016}}{{Sfn|McFaul|2006}} They do not believe in eternal heaven or hell or judgment day. They grant the freedom to choose beliefs such as in gods or no-gods, to disagree with core teachings, and to choose whether to participate in prayers, rituals and festivals. They all consider values such as non-violence to be important,{{Sfn|Shaw|Demy|2017}} link suffering to craving, individual's actions, intents, and karma, and believe spirituality is a means to enlightened peace, bliss and eternal liberation (''moksha'').{{Sfn|Solomon|Higgins|1998}}{{Sfn|McFaul|2006}}
Jainism differs from both Buddhism and Hinduism in its ontological premises. All believe in impermanence, but Buddhism incorporates the premise of ''anatta'' ("no eternal self or soul"). Hinduism incorporates an eternal unchanging ''atman'' ("soul"), while Jainism incorporates an eternal but changing ''jiva'' ("soul").{{Sfn|Dundas|2002}}{{Sfn|Wiley|2004}}{{Sfn|Long|2013}} In Jain thought, there are infinite eternal ''jivas'', predominantly in cycles of rebirth, and a few ''siddhas'' (perfected ones).{{Sfn|Hiriyanna|1993}} Unlike Jainism, Hindu philosophies encompass nondualism where all souls are identical as Brahman and posited as interconnected one{{Sfn|Hiriyanna|1993}}{{Sfn|Perrett|2013}}{{Sfn|Bartley|2013}}
While both Hinduism and Jainism believe "soul exists" to be a self-evident truth, most Hindu systems consider it to be eternally present, infinite and constant (''vibhu''), but some Hindu scholars propose soul to be atomic. Hindu thought generally discusses Atman and Brahman through a monistic or dualistic framework. In contrast, Jain thought denies the Hindu metaphysical concept of Brahman, and Jain philosophy considers the soul to be ever changing and bound to the body or matter for each lifetime, thereby having a finite size that infuses the entire body of a living being.{{Sfn|Jaini|1998}}
Jainism is similar to Buddhism in not recognizing the primacy of the Vedas and the Hindu Brahman. Jainism and Hinduism, however, both believe "soul exists" as a self-evident truth.{{Sfn|Dalal|2010b}}{{Sfn|Solomon|Higgins|1998}} Jains and Hindus have frequently intermarried, particularly in northern, central and western regions of India.{{Sfn|Juergensmeyer|2011}}{{Sfn|Kelting|2009}} Some early colonial scholars stated that Jainism like Buddhism was, in part, a rejection of the Hindu caste system,{{Sfn|Nesfield|1885}}{{Sfn|Pope|1880}} but later scholars consider this a Western error.{{Sfn|Alberts|2007}} A caste system not based on birth has been a historic part of Jain society, and Jainism focused on transforming the individual, not society.{{Sfn|Juergensmeyer|2011}}{{Sfn|Dundas|2002}}{{Sfn|Babb|1996}}{{Sfn|Sangave|1980}}{{Efn|According to [[Richard Gombrich]] and other scholars, Buddhism too was not a rejection or rebellion against any ancient caste system and it too was focused on individual's liberation from rebirths and suffering. The caste system in Buddhist societies and monasteries outside India have been documented. Gombrich states, "Some modernists go so far as to say that the Buddha was against caste altogether: this is not the case, but is one of the mistakes picked up from western authors."{{sfn|Gombrich|2012|pp=344–353 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Alberts|2007|pp=258–259}}{{sfn|Florida|2005|pp=134–137}}}}
Monasticism is similar in all three traditions,{{Sfn|Johnston|2000}}{{Sfn|Caillat|2003a}} with similar rules, hierarchical structure, not traveling during the four-month [[မုဟ်သုန်|monsoon]] season, and celibacy,{{Sfn|Caillat|2003a}} originating before the Buddha or the Mahāvīra.{{Sfn|Johnston|2000}} Jain and Hindu monastic communities have traditionally been more mobile and had an itinerant lifestyle, while Buddhist monks have favored belonging to a ''sangha'' (monastery) and staying in its premises.{{Sfn|Hirakawa|1993}} Buddhist monastic rules forbid a monk to go outside without wearing the sangha's distinctive ruddy robe, or to use wooden bowls.{{Sfn|Johnston|2000}} In contrast, Jain monastic rules have either required nakedness (Digambara) or white clothes (Śvētāmbara), and they have disagreed on the legitimacy of the wooden or empty gourd as the begging bowl by Jain monks.{{Sfn|Johnston|2000}}{{Efn|Whether the begging utensils of a monk, such as robe and begging bowl, were justified and legitimate for a Jain monk and were not considered an impediment on the path to salvation, remained a bone of contention among various splinter groups within Jainism, and was partly responsible for the ultimate Digambara-Svetambara split, although it would be a grave oversimplification to reduce the roots of the split to just monks' robes and bowls.{{sfn|Balcerowicz|2015|pp=42–43}}}}
Jains have similar views with Hindus that violence in self-defence can be justified, and that a soldier who kills enemies in combat is performing a legitimate duty. Jain communities accepted the use of military power for their defence; there were Jain monarchs, military commanders, and soldiers. The Jain and Hindu communities have often been very close and mutually accepting. Some Hindu temples have included a Jain ''Tirthankara'' within its premises in a place of honour,{{Sfn|Long|2009}}{{Sfn|Sharma|Ghosal|2006}} while temple complexes such as the Badami cave temples and Khajuraho feature both Hindu and Jain monuments.{{Sfn|Michell|2014}}{{Sfn|Ring|Watson|Schellinger|1996}}
== Art and architecture ==
[[ဝှာင်:Detail_of_a_leaf_with_the_birth_of_mahavira.jpg|thumb|The birth of Mahavira, from the ''Kalpa Sūtra'' (c.{{Spaces}}1375–1400 CE)]]
Jainism has contributed significantly to Indian art and architecture. Jain arts depict life legends of ''tirthankara'' or other important people, particularly with them in a seated or standing meditative posture. ''Yakshas'' and ''yakshinis'', attendant spirits who guard the ''tirthankara'', are usually shown with them.{{Sfn|Natubhai Shah|1998}} The earliest known Jain image is in the Patna museum. It is dated approximately to the 3rd century BCE.{{Sfn|Natubhai Shah|1998}} Bronze images of Pārśva can be seen in the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai, and in the Patna museum; these are dated to the 2nd century BCE.{{Sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987}}
''Ayagapata'' is a type of votive tablet used in Jainism for donation and worship in the early centuries. These tablets are decorated with objects and designs central to Jain worship such as the ''stupa'', ''dharmacakra'' and ''triratna''. They present simultaneous trends or image and symbol worship. Numerous such stone tablets were discovered during excavations at ancient Jain sites like Kankali Tila near Mathura in Uttar Pradesh, India. The practice of donating these tablets is documented from 1st century BCE to 3rd century CE.{{Sfn|Kishore|2015}}{{Sfn|Jain|Fischer|1978}} ''Samavasarana'', a preaching hall of ''tirthankaras'' with various beings concentrically placed, is an important theme of Jain art.{{Sfn|Wiley|2009}}
The Jain tower in Chittor, Rajasthan, is a good example of Jain architecture.{{Sfn|Owen|2012a}} Decorated manuscripts are preserved in Jain libraries, containing diagrams from Jain cosmology.{{Sfn|Natubhai Shah|1998}} Most of the paintings and illustrations depict historical events, known as ''Panch Kalyanaka'', from the life of the ''tirthankara''. Rishabha, the first ''tirthankara'', is usually depicted in either the lotus position or ''kayotsarga'', the standing position. He is distinguished from other ''tirthankara'' by the long locks of hair falling to his shoulders. Bull images also appear in his sculptures.{{Sfn|Natubhai Shah|1998}} In paintings, incidents from his life, like his marriage and Indra marking his forehead, are depicted. Other paintings show him presenting a pottery bowl to his followers; he is also seen painting a house, weaving, and being visited by his mother Marudevi.{{Sfn|Jain|Fischer|1978}} Each of the twenty-four ''tirthankara'' is associated with distinctive emblems, which are listed in such texts as ''Tiloyapannati'', ''Kahavaali'' and ''Pravacanasaarodhara''.{{Sfn|Natubhai Shah|1998}}
=== Temples ===
A Jain temple, a ''Derasar'' or ''Basadi'', is a place of worship.{{Sfn|Babb|1996}} Temples contain ''tirthankara'' images, some fixed, others moveable.{{Sfn|Babb|1996}} These are stationed in the inner sanctum, one of the two sacred zones, the other being the main hall.{{Sfn|Babb|1996}} One of the images is marked as the ''moolnayak'' (primary deity).{{Sfn|Babb|1996}} A ''manastambha'' (column of honor) is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples.{{Sfn|Settar|1989}} Temple construction is considered a meritorious act.{{Sfn|Sangave|2001}}
Ancient Jain monuments include the Udaigiri Hills near Bhelsa (Vidisha) in Madhya Pradesh, the Ellora in Maharashtra, the Palitana temples in Gujarat, and the Jain temples at Dilwara Temples near Mount Abu, Rajasthan. Chaumukha temple in Ranakpur is considered one of the most beautiful Jain temples and is famous for its detailed carvings.{{Sfn|Sehdev Kumar|2001}} According to Jain texts, Shikharji is the place where twenty of the twenty-four Jain ''Tīrthaṅkaras'' along with many other monks attained ''moksha'' (died without being reborn, with their soul in ''Siddhashila''). The Shikharji site in northeastern Jharkhand is therefore a revered pilgrimage site.{{Sfn|Cort|2010}}{{Efn|Some texts refer to the place as Mount Sammeta.{{sfn|Jacobi|1964|p=275}}}} The Palitana temples are the holiest shrine for the Śvētāmbara Murtipujaka sect.{{Sfn|Berger|2010}} Along with Shikharji the two sites are considered the holiest of all pilgrimage sites by the Jain community. The Jain complex, Khajuraho and Jain Narayana temple are part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Shravanabelagola, Saavira Kambada Basadi or ''1000 pillars'' and Brahma Jinalaya are important Jain centers in Karnataka.{{Sfn|Butalia|Small|2004}}{{Sfn|Fergusson|1876}}{{Sfn|Pandya|2014}} In and around Madurai, there are 26 caves, 200 stone beds, 60 inscriptions, and over 100 sculptures.
The 2nd–1st century BCE Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves are rich with carvings of ''tirthanakars'' and deities with inscriptions including the Elephant Cave inscription.{{Sfn|Upinder Singh|2016}} Jain cave temples at Badami, Mangi-Tungi and the Ellora Caves are considered important.{{Sfn|Owen|2012a}} The Sittanavasal Cave temple is a fine example of Jain art with an early cave shelter, and a medieval rock-cut temple with excellent fresco paintings comparable to Ajantha. Inside are seventeen stone beds with 2nd century BCE Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions. The 8th century Kazhugumalai temple marks the revival of Jainism in South India.<gallery mode="packed" caption="Jain temples of varied styles in India and abroad">
ဝှာင်:Jain Temple Ranakpur.jpg|[[Ranakpur Jain Temple]]
ဝှာင်:Delwada.jpg|[[Dilwara Temples]]
ဝှာင်:Le temple de Parshvanath (Khajuraho) (8638423582).jpg|[[Parshvanatha temple, Khajuraho|Parshvanath Temple]] in [[Khajuraho]]
ဝှာင်:Jain temples on Girnar mountain aerial view.jpg|[[Girnar Jain temples]]
ဝှာင်:Jal Mandir.The Jain Temple at Pawapur,.jpg|[[Jal Mandir]], [[Pawapuri]]
ဝှာင်:Lodurva Temples.jpg|[[Lodhruva|Lodhruva Jain temple]]
ဝှာင်:Templejaindanvers.jpg|[[Jainism in Belgium|Jain temple]], [[Antwerp]], [[Belgium]]
<!--Please DO NOT add any more images here, there are QUITE enough already, thanks!-->|
</gallery>
=== Pilgrimages ===
[[ဝှာင်:Shikharji_Parasnath_Giridih.jpg|thumb|Shikharji]]
Jain ''Tirtha'' (pilgrim) sites are divided into the following categories:{{Sfn|Titze|1998}}
Outside contemporary India, Jain communities built temples in locations such as Nagarparkar, Sindh (Pakistan). However, according to a UNESCO tentative world heritage site application, Nagarparkar was not a "major religious centre or a place of pilgrimage" for Jainism, but it was once an important cultural landscape before "the last remaining Jain community left the area in 1947 at Partition".
=== Statues and sculptures ===
[[ဝှာင်:Thirthankara_Suparshvanath_Museum_Rietberg_RVI_306.jpg|thumb|Idol of Suparśvanātha ]]
Jain sculptures usually depict one of the twenty-four ''tīrthaṅkaras''; Parshvanatha, Rishabhanatha and Mahāvīra are among the more popular, often seated in lotus position or ''kayotsarga'', along with ''Arihant'', Bahubali, and protector deities like Ambika.{{Sfn|Arora|2007}} Quadruple images are also popular. ''Tirthankar'' idols look similar, differentiated by their individual symbol, except for Parshvanatha whose head is crowned by a snake. Digambara images are naked without any beautification, whereas Śvētāmbara depictions are clothed and ornamented.{{Sfn|Cort|2010}}
A monolithic, {{Convert|18|m|ft}} statue of Bahubali, ''Gommateshvara'', built in 981 CE by the Ganga minister and commander Chavundaraya, is situated on a hilltop in Shravanabelagola in Karnataka. This statue was voted first in the SMS poll Seven Wonders of India conducted by ''The Times of India''. The {{Convert|33|m|ft}} tall Statue of Ahiṃsā (depicting Rishabhanatha) was erected in the Nashik district in 2015. Idols are often made in ''Ashtadhatu'' (literally "eight metals"), namely Akota Bronze, brass, gold, silver, stone monoliths, rock cut, and precious stones.{{Sfn|Pratapaditya Pal|1986}}
=== Symbols ===
Jain icons and arts incorporate symbols such as the swastika, <nowiki><i id="mwBhw">Om</i></nowiki>, and the ''Ashtamangala''. In Jainism, ''Om'' is a condensed reference to the initials "A-A-A-U-M" of the five parameshthis: "''Arihant'', ''Ashiri'', ''Acharya'', ''Upajjhaya'', ''Muni''",{{Sfn|von Glasenapp|1925}} or the five lines of the <nowiki><i id="mwBiw">Ṇamōkāra</i></nowiki> Mantra.{{Sfn|Agarwal|2012}}{{Sfn|Agarwal|2013}} The ''Ashtamangala'' is a set of eight auspicious symbols:{{Sfn|Titze|1998}} in the Digambara tradition, these are Chatra, ''Dhvaja'', ''Kalasha'', Fly-whisk, Mirror, Chair, Hand fan and Vessel. In the Śvētāmbar tradition, they are Swastika, ''Srivatsa'', ''Nandavarta'', ''Vardhmanaka'' (food vessel), ''Bhadrasana'' (seat), ''Kalasha'' (pot), ''Darpan'' (mirror) and pair of fish.{{Sfn|Titze|1998}}
The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes <nowiki><i id="mwBko">ahimsā</i></nowiki>. The wheel represents the ''dharmachakra'', which stands for the resolve to halt the ''saṃsāra'' (wandering) through the relentless pursuit of ''ahimsā''. The five colours of the Jain flag represent the ''Pañca-Parameṣṭhi'' and the five vows.{{Sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2012}} The swastika's four arms symbolise the four realms in which rebirth occurs according to Jainism: humans, heavenly beings, hellish beings and non-humans.{{Sfn|Cort|2001a}}{{Sfn|Jansma|Jain|2006}} The three dots on the top represent the three jewels mentioned in ancient texts: correct faith, correct understanding and correct conduct, believed to lead to spiritual perfection.{{Sfn|Cort|2001a}}
In 1974, on the 2500th anniversary of the nirvana of Mahāvīra, the Jain community chose a single combined image for Jainism.{{Sfn|Robinson|2006}} It depicts the three ''lokas'', heaven, the human world and hell. The semi-circular topmost portion symbolizes ''Siddhashila'', a zone beyond the three realms. The Jain swastika and the symbol of ''Ahiṃsā'' are included, with the Jain mantra ''Parasparopagraho Jīvānām''{{Sfn|Sangave|2001}} from sūtra 5.21 of Umaswati's ''Tattvarthasūtra'', meaning "souls render service to one another".{{Sfn|Vallely|2013}}
== History ==
== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|23em}}
[[ကဏ္ဍ:Category:ဘာသာ]]
[[ကဏ္ဍ:ပြန်လည်မဆန်းစစ်ရသေးသော ဘာသာပြန်များပါဝင်သည့် စာမျက်နှာများ]]
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